Animal droppings for compost

Many gardeners buy compost starters to get a pile fired up. These are basically high-nitrogen products that may or may not work, depending on what else is in your pile. Fresh green weeds, with a little soil clinging to their roots, or a shovelful of soil or compost, tossed at intervals into the pile will suffice. But for a great, cheap pile activator, try alfalfa. Toss in handfuls from bales (old or rained-on bales are the cheapest) or use an alfalfa meal product. Horse feed, rabbit food pellets, even some brands of cat litter, are almost pure alfalfa meal.

Pets, except dogs and cats, can contribute significantly to the nitrogen content of a compost pile, some will even do the work of turning
If you live in an area where it is possible, and you like animals, keep a pet rabbit or some chickens. Rabbit waste, collected in a bucket beneath the hutch, is high in nitrogen, a fact attested to by the urea odor. But emptied routinely into the compost pile, you avoid the odor, while adding its riches to the pile.
Chickens are even better than bunnies. Toss your compost materials into an enclosed chicken run and let them turn it all into a homogenized, highly nutritious blend. Every few weeks rake out the run and add to the compost pile. Chickens will also produce fresh eggs for breakfast, and they love to eat garden bugs!

Ready, Set, Compost!

You can make composting as easy and cheap as that leaf-dropping tree. All you need are the ingredients and as much time as you are willing to devote to the project.

For the sake of appearances, or ease of handling, you may wish to enclose the pile in a bin. My favorite siding for this job is a 10- to 12 1/2-foot length of 48-inch-wide hardware cloth, 1/2- by 1-inch mesh. It is sturdy enough to be freestanding, forms a circle of perfect dimensions for composting, and won't leak any small pieces of the pile. Bend over a few of the wires on one edge to form hooks to attach it to the other edge in a cylinder. It's cheap, easy to use, lasts forever, and stores almost anywhere. Lumber scraps and chicken wire, salvaged concrete blocks, or bales of straw arranged together will also serve the purpose.

The dimensions of the pile affect how quickly it breaks down. Research has determined that the pile must be at least 3 feet high by 3 feet across in order to have enough mass to retain the heat generated in composting. As the microbes work, temperatures can reach 140°F inside the pile. These high temperatures kill weed seeds and disease organisms. Piles about 4 feet by 4 feet will work fine, but piles much larger than 5 feet around take a lot of work to keep actively composting. Larger

piles require constant turning to keep oxygen supplied to those busy microbes.

There are no hard and fast rules for building a compost pile. Gardeners generally recommend layering nitrogen materials and carbon materials with a bit of soil, with finished compost or activator sprinkled throughout the pile as it is built. The first time you turn the pile this neat arrangement is shot. The most convenient way to compost is to toss in whatever is available at the moment. Weeds go in when you pull them, soil, and all. Toss in eggshells, coffee grounds, and melon rinds after breakfast. Throw cornstalks on the pile at the end of summer.

You can add many items whole to the compost pile, and they will degrade fine. But larger items, such as cornstalks, hedge trimmings, and spent broccoli plants, will break down much more quickly if chopped into smaller pieces first. When they are cut into pieces there is much more surface area on which the microbes can work. Reduce large pieces by running over a shallow pile of them with a lawn mower, hacking with an ax, or throwing them in a chipper/shredder.

Keep the pile moist as you add materials to it. An occasional sprinkling with the garden hose provides the microbes with water they need to survive. Don't let piles get dripping wet, however, as precious plant nutrients will leach out. Cover your pile during rainy weather or if it is within sprinkler range.

Turning the pile provides aerobic conditions for you and the pile. You get the exercise, and the pile gets a fresh supply of oxygen for those hard-working microbes. If using a bin, disassemble it, grab a fork, and start working. Turn the outsides of the old pile into the center so they will be exposed to microbial action. Sprinkle the pile with water intermittently as you turn it. The more frequently you turn the pile, the more quickly the compost will decompose.

What Does It Take to Make Compost?

The good news is that anybody can make compost. Actually, compost will make itself without anybody. Consider a maple tree near a fence line. Each year it sheds its leaves, and some of those leaves are blown against the fence where they pile up. In time, the bottom layer of those leaves is no longer recognizable as leaves, but transformed into a dark, sweet-smelling, crumbly soil.
All organic matter rots. You can speed up the process by combining different types of matter, ventilating the mix to add oxygen, and keeping it moist. When you control the circumstances, the process speeds up considerably. You can make compost in weeks, not years.

In terms of composting, gardeners consider organic matter primarily a carbon-based material or a nitrogen-based material. Microbes burn approximately one part of nitrogen for every twenty-five parts of carbon they digest. So you need at least one part of nitrogen material for every twenty-five parts of carbon material. More nitrogen material is fine if you have it. Materials high in nitrogen, such as alfalfa meal, blood meal, or urea, act as pile activators by jump-starting the microbes into action. Which materials are nitrogen and which are carbon? In general the easiest way to tell is that materials higher in nitrogen are green and those higher in carbon are brown. Other ingredients add phosphorus, potassium, and trace minerals. Egg shells, wood ashes, banana skins, melon rinds, orange peels, stale bread, apple peels, potato skins, pea pods, and tea leaves are great for composting.

There are a few things that, although they are organic matter, do not belong in a garden compost pile. Leave the following out of the compost pile:

• Weeds that have gone to seed. The seeds may survive.
• Obviously diseased or insect-infested material.
• Any meat, grease, or fat. It stinks and attracts vermin.
• Cat and dog feces, which may transfer parasites to the garden.
• Grass clippings or weeds that have been treated with weed killers. Chemicals may persist and poison the garden.
• Pine needles or large branches. They don't harm the pile but take years to decompose.

Why Compost?

Let's answer this question not only from a frugal point of view, but from that of plant health and a healthy global environment as well. Yard and garden waste account for 17 percent of the trash that finds its way into our landfills. Kitchen waste makes up another 8 percent. Combined, kitchen and garden waste account for one quarter of all the garbage we throw out. By composting, you save money used to dispose of waste, including bags and cans, as well as your time spent collecting it. And the environment also wins. You also get the world's best free fertilizer, compost. Not a bad return.

What makes compost so great? It is very rich in nutrients derived from plant and animal matter. Unlike many store-bought soil amendments, it contains trace elements. Compost is rich in humus, and you remember that great stuff.
The process of composting helps purify the end result by killing many seeds and harmful organisms present in the raw ingredients. It's the closest thing gardeners have to spinning straw (and weeds and manure and eggshells and more!) into gold.

How to Fertilize Frugally

The method of application depends on the type of fertilizer. Sprinkle granules around the base of plants, scratch into the soil, and water thoroughly to dissolve. Shovel a layer of compost or manure over the soil at the base of the plants, and scratch in with a hoe. This method is called side-dressing.

You can apply some fertilizers, including compost and manure, in liquid solution. Apply liquid fertilizers either to the soil or leaves. This is called foliar feeding. Plants can absorb nutrients in solution through their leaves as well as their roots. In fact, they absorb them more quickly this way. Apply these products through a sprayer or dissolve in a watering can and apply by hand. The second option is cheaper, but takes longer.

Is it possible, you may ask, to apply compost or manure as a liquid? The answer is, yes, if you brew a batch of fabulous, free ''tea." Scoop some compost or manure into a bagtry using an old pillowcase, old pantyhose, gunnysack, flour sack, or any bag made of porous fabric. Tie off the top and set in a 5-gallon bucket. Use larger containers if you need more fertilizer. Fill the bucket with water to the top of the bag and let it sit for a day or two. Nutrients from the compost or manure leach into the water, which you then use to water your garden or to foliar feed.

For lawns, a spreader broadcasts fertilizer evenly over the surface of the grass, liquid fertilizer applicators that attach to your hose are also available. Either one is a fair investment. Fertilize woody landscape plants by broadcasting the product throughout the lawn and just outside the drip line. If landscape plants are growing through the lawn, however, punch holes with a soil probe or soil auger attached to an electric drill, and put the fertilizer into the holes. This prevents burning the grass with an overdose of nitrogen. Make the holes 1 to 2 inches across and about 8 inches deep, spaced about 2 feet apart. Avoid placing them close to tree trunks as this process could damage roots.

Organic or Synthetic Fertilizers

A common misconception is that synthetic fertilizers are better than organic. Another misunderstanding is that organic is better than synthetic. You can make political or environmental arguments for synthetic or organic fertilizer, but the plants can't tell the difference as long as the nutrients are available. However, don't forget the many benefits of adding humus to your soil, which only organic amendments can supply. Brand labels mean nothing to plants. It's the fertilizer analysis that countsthe list of three, sometimes four, numbers listed on the bag. They stand for the percentage of nitrogen (designated by the international chemical symbol N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and when present, sulfur (S), in the product, in that order. As mentioned in Chapter 1, these are the major elements plants need (except sulfur, which is a secondary element). Trace elements are also necessary, but manufacturers may or may not list them on labels. Organic fertilizers are much more likely to include these than manufacturers of chemical formulas.

Plants can only use nutrients that have been reduced to the molecular form. Chemical fertilizers work so fast because they have already been processed into the molecular form, whereas organic fertilizers must first be broken down by soil microbes. This activity depends on soil temperature. Below 70°F, soil microorganisms work slower, which makes the nutrients in organic fertilizer unavailable to plants in cold soils. Organic fertilizers release nutrients over a period of time, unlike synthetic fertilizers which make the nutrients available at time of application.

Chemical fertilizers dissolve fairly quickly in water, which makes them easily accessible to plants. Their labels instruct to water thoroughly after application. Unfortunately, this ready solubility also means that chemical fertilizers, unlike slow-release organics, leach more quickly from the soil.

For the best results with the least expense, strategically combine the two types of fertilizer. In the spring, while the soil is still cool, apply chemical fertilizer to lawn, flower borders, and vegetable gardens. Once the soil is warm, switch to compost or another low-cost organic source. Organic fertilizers are not necessarily more costly than synthetics. This is commonly misstated, because the measurable amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in synthetic fertilizers costs less per pound than those in many commercially prepared organic fertilizers. But those aren't the only sources of organic fertilizer. Once you know, roughly, the fertilizer analysis of organic compounds, which varies with different sources, you can mix your own fertilizers balanced for your particular needs, at a fraction of the cost.

This is where ingenuity and the willingness to scrounge for something pays off. I never buy fertilizer, and you don't have to either. So long as you supply the plants' nutrient requirements, it just doesn't matter to them where the nutrients come from, whether it is an organic or synthetic source.

Windowpanes or Grow Lights

The final consideration for starting seeds indoors is their individual light requirements. Most seeds germinate best in darkness, but some won't sprout without a little light. Knowing the light requirements of the seeds you sow prevents mysterious disappointments.
The light level is just as important after the seeds sprout. If grown at room temperature, they need supplemental light to prevent spindly growth. Plants grown on windowsills will do fine if the microclimate near the window is cool enough.

The alternative is to purchase cool-watt fluorescent lights. Sold as shop lights in 4- and 8-foot lengths, the lights are inexpensive and perfectly adequate for the task. They do not radiate the full sun spectrum, but unless you intend to hold seedlings until they flower, they won't need the full sun spectrum. The range of light waves from shop lights are just what seedlings need. Hang the lights within a few inches of the plants' tops, and adjust the lights as the seedlings grow.

Water Loss Means We All Lose

In a perfect world every drop of water you put on your plants would run straight to the roots and would be used immediately by the plant. But we have to deal with water loss. Knowing how to reduce it saves water and money.

Moisture is lost from the soil in several ways, but you can cut these losses. By incorporating lots of humus into the soil, you will lessen the amount of water that percolates through the soil and out of reach. Humus is a water magnet. A lot of water is also lost through evaporation from the soil surface. Thanks to capillary action through the soil, which draws water up from below, evaporation can deplete water from deep in the ground. Keeping the soil surface covered with mulch (see pages 109111) protects against this. Another line of defense against evaporation is to get less of the soil surface wet in the first place. This means replacing a sprinkler with a drip system, soaker hose, or individual water containers for landscape or large vegetable plants. Finally, transpiration, the way in which plants metabolize water, can steal amazing quantities of water from your soil. One large shade tree on a hot sum mer day can transpire several hundred gallons of water. Misting plants on hot, dry days helps limit the amount transpired and reduces plant stress.

As mentioned, air evaporation is also a major water waster if you use an overhead sprinkler. Water early in the morning or at night for the least water loss. If you want to keep your water bill down, never water during hot, windy weather.

How Much Water Is Just Right?

While there is no one answer to the question of how much water is just right for all gardens, there are some useful general guidelines. The most efficient and cost-effective way to water any plant is to fill the entire root zone with water, and let the soil become almost dry be fore the next watering. The amount of dryness depends on the plant. Let the top 2 or 3 inches dry out for most established plants. Let the soil around a large tree dry down several inches, but keep new or tiny plants moist to the top inch or so of soil.

Water most plants deeply and infrequently. When using a sprinkler, measure how many inches of water you apply by setting jars at intervals along sprinkler pathways. This will also tell you if the sprinkler gives even coverage.

Remember soil type affects how much water is necessary. Water sandy soils more frequently than clay soil. To make sure you are delivering enough water to where it is needed, use a soil probe or shovel before you water to determine the extent of dryness. Repeat the process after watering to see how deeply the water has penetrated into the soil.

Lawns. Use an overhead sprinkler. Water to a depth of at least 6 inches as soon as grass fails to spring up after walking on it. Avoid frequent, shallow waterings as they lead to shallow roots, which are far more susceptible to heat or drought. Aeration, or removal of soil plugs, helps send water to the root zone. Renting an aerator every other year or so also will help to reduce thatch build-up and combat compaction.

Vegetables, Bedding Plants, and Perennials. Water 6 to 12 inches deep every four to ten days for established plants. Don't wait for plants to wilt before the next watering. Wilting slows growth and reduces crop yields.

Soaker hoses or drip irrigation are efficient ways to water here. They can save up to 60 percent of the water used by a sprinkler. Place mulch over the hose to prevent evaporation.

A cheap version of drip irrigation is container watering. Bury a container, such as a plastic 1-gallon milk jug that has had 2 or 3 holes punched in the bottom, next to or between individual plants. Keep the containers filled with water and allow them to seep water directly into plant root zones. Tailor the size of the container to the size of the plant.

Sprinklers are not the best for vegetable gardens because they waste a vast amount of water. More water lands on the leaves, where it evaporates, than anywhere else. Hand watering is as much a waste of time as it is water. Unless you stand there for a few hours with a water wand, you cannot wet the soil deeply enough to do a worthwhile job.

Cultivate unmulched soil to increase water absorption. Crusted soil forms a barrier against water penetration.
Trees, Shrubs, and Landscape Plants. Water throughout the drip line of plants for the most efficient intake of water. Soaker hoses (see page 31) allow you to wind around individual plants. They are great for such shrubs as roses that are susceptible to moisture-loving disease organisms. Since no water rests on the leaves the diseases can't establish their spores. To allow water to slowly seep down into the soil, mound a ridge of soil around the outside of the drip line to form a basin and fill with water. Remove this soil during rainy weather to prevent waterlogged roots.

Plants on landscape berms. Check and water more frequently since they have more exposed soil from which water may evaporate.

New woody transplants. Water thoroughly both the nursery soil within the root ball and the native soil surrounding it. Failure to do so may prevent the roots from venturing into the surrounding soil, which can eventually kill the plant. Dead plants are an investment wasted.

Plants in containers. Water as soon as the surface feels dry. Keep a close eye on thirsty plants such as fuschias, which often need watering once or twice daily in hot, dry weather.

Watering your plants

If you still use a lawn sprinkler to water a vegetable garden or landscape planting, or if you use an overhead watering system on hot, windy days you are wasting water. The idea of watering is to deliver an adequate amount of water to plant roots, no more, no less, and nowhere else.

There are several factors that determine how much water you need to apply and the best method of application. For starters, rainfall is a factor. No matter what plants you are watering in what type of soil, the amount of watering necessary depends on how much nature already supplies.

Another factor is the soil type. Remember that sandy soils drain quickly and that clay holds moisture for a longer period of time. These are functions of how the water moves through the soil, which affects its availability to plant roots. One inch of water applied in sandy soil will percolate down 12 inches. In good loam 1 inch of water will go down 6 to 10 inches, and in clay it will penetrate about 4 or 5 inches. Once water has filtered down beneath plant root zones it is effectively gone.

Finally, consider the plants you are watering. Some plants need much more water than others. New plants, from seeded lawns to bedding transplants and burlap-balled shrubs, require lots of frequent watering to establish their roots. On the other hand, established native plants need very little rainfall supplementation; they have naturally adapted to the area. Some plants, such as madrona, flannel bush, and western dogwood, suffer if watered in the summer.

A Guide on Organic Fertilizers

You know you want humus or organic matter and also that other nutrients are necessary for soil and plant health. But before you run down to the garden center, let's consider some alternative low-cost soil
amendments, where you can get them, and how they will help your garden.

Compost. Your own backyard is the best and cheapest place to find this valuable soil amendment . You also will find it in the garden center's soil amendment section. Also, cities and counties are getting into the act with community composting. You can find huge heaps of the stuff near your local trash dump. Bring your own containers or a pick-up truck, and get your share for nothing or a nominal fee.

Mushroom compost. If you happen to live near a mushroom grower, they are an excellent source for low-cost or free compost. Mushrooms are grown indoors in huge containers filled with fine, dark, crumbly compost. Before growers plant mushroom spawn in containers, they steam-sterilize the compost. After a couple of months, growers harvest the mushrooms and clear out the bins. This used compost is still rich in nutrients and organic matter. A few little mushrooms may pop up, but since you know they are an edible variety, eat up.

Sewage sludge. Plants treat sewage for disposal using two methods, anaerobic digestion and air activation. Digested sludge is much lower quality as a fertilizer than the activated type. Activated sludge is usually much more expensive. Either type of heat-treated sludge is safe to use around your yard and garden. Inquire at your local treatment plant.

Green manures. When you spade green vegetation into the soil, you add precious organic matter, nutrients, and moisture. Green leaves, weeds, grass clippings, and cover crops such as clovers, buckwheat, rye, and oats return nitrogen, carbon, trace minerals, and other nutrients to the soil when turned under. Legumes, such as clover and alfalfa, make exceptional cover crops because they take nitrogen from the air, and convert it into a usable form for plants. One word of caution: If your plants go to seed, don't turn them into your garden soilunless you want more of them.

Animal manures. Where there are animals, there will be manure. The first rule is never use cat, dog, or swine manure in your garden. These types of manure harbor parasites and disease organisms that can be harmful to your health.

Racetracks, livestock breeding farms, dairy farms, rabbit runs, poultry farms, petting zoos, and non-petting zoos often are overjoyed to have someone actually volunteer to haul the manure away! Most manures should not be used fresh in the garden; salts will burn plant roots. Compost it first, or spread it over the soil in the fall so it has time to mellow.
Rendering plants. Organic gardeners are familiar with additives such as blood meal (rich in nitrogen), hoof and horn meal (high in nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium), and bone meal (rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium). These are by-products of the slaughtering process and originate at rendering plants. Purchased in small quantities, these products are usually quite expensive. Most rendering plants sell these only in bulk, such as 25-ton tractor/trailer loads. Make friends with a plant worker who may be able to get you a smaller quantity!

Restaurants. Coffee grounds from espresso bars or coffee brewers are a good source of nitrogen. Ask the brewer to empty coffee grounds into a container for you to pick up once a week. The grounds are fairly acidic and useful in lowering pH levels when heavily applied.

Lumber mills. Sawdust is the by-product of turning trees into boards. Composed of cellulose, sawdust is a good form of organic matter for your garden. Don't add more than 2 inches each year as it requires a lot of nitrogen to decompose. For each ton of sawdust, a garden burns about 31/2 pounds of pure nitrogen. Offset this by adding 17 pounds of ammonium sulfate, 11 pounds of ammonium nitrate, or 8 pounds of urea. Avoid cedar sawdust, because it is toxic to some seedlings. Alderwood dust decomposes more quickly than others, such as fir or hemlock.

Don't waste money giving plants more nutrient supplements than they can absorb.

The major elements are those listed on plant food labels as N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), and K (potassium, available as potash or K2O). Many soils are naturally high or low in any of these, but nitrogen is the most water soluble, and therefore the most likely to leach away (and into ground-water supplies). Adding more nitrogen than plants can take up is a waste of money.

The elements plants use less of are called secondary elements. They are no less critical to healthy growth than the major elements; plants just require smaller doses of them. They are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). Don't waste money by adding these to your soil on a yearly basis, because plants take them in slowly, and they don't leach away. A single application usually lasts several years.
Trace or micronutrients are those that plants require only small amounts of. They include boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo), and chlorine (Cl). Short of a soil test, the best way to tell if you need to add any of these is by plant response.

Is Your Soil Nutritious?

So you agree humus is good stuff. But will your soil contain all the nutrients necessary for healthy plant growth if all you add to it is humus? You already know incorporating organic matter that becomes humus means you will probably have to add nitrogen. Plants also need many other nutrients.
With the exception of carbon, which plants take from carbon dioxide in the air, as well as hydrogen and oxygen, which they derive from water, all other elements plants use must come directly from the soil. So what do they need?

Start with healthy soil for healthier, longer-lived plants

Thou shalt not skimp on soil preparation! The more you put into your soil, the more you will get out of it. What, you may ask, is the big deal? Dirt is still dirt, right? The truth is your soil health predicts the health of your entire garden. Rich, healthy soil sustains healthy plants that are more productive and give you the best possible return for your gardening investment. They also cost little or nothing in pesticides, fertilizers, and replacement.

For a better understanding, look at the functions of soil in your garden. Soil provides physical support for the plants and a reservoir for

nutrients, water, and oxygen. Some soils do the second part better than others. Sandy soils drain quickly, providing plenty of oxygen, but they also lose water, and dissolve nutrients too quickly. Clay holds minerals and moisture well, but drains poorly. The magic ingredient for improving either type of soil, or any type in between, is humus.

Humus is organic matter that has gone through a degrading experience. Organic matter is the remains of previously living things, such as plants, micro-organisms, bugs, and us. When added to sandy soils, humus improves water retention by attracting water molecules. When added to clay, humus improves drainage by breaking up the clay particles that naturally cling together. Humus also provides fuel for millions of micro-organisms that reside in the soil. As they break it down, the micro-organisms release elements necessary for plant growth.

High levels of humus are a sign of well-managed soil. It is best to add small amounts of humus each year and build it up, rather than dump it all on in one application. This is important because in the process of decaying organic matter, micro-organisms tie up precious soil nitrogen, which must be replenished. A good rule of thumb is to add not more than 4 inches of organic matter each year to any garden area.

Incorporating humus into your garden can be as cheap or expensive as you make it. Not surprisingly, the cheaper ways are more work than the expensive ones. The ideal way to incorporate humus is to compost. Barnyard manures also provide plenty of partially processed organic matter. Of course, garden centers offer bags of dried organic matter in the form of peat moss, processed compost, and steer manure. The advantage of compost, manures, or commercial products containing fertilizers is they also contain soil nutrients, usually including necessary nitrogen. So while it is less expensive to compost your own, the good news about buying bags of fertilizer is your money will be well-spent.

Mix Your Own Soil

A standard formula for mixing planting medium is:

1 part soil
1 part peat moss
1 part perlite, vermiculite or sharp, clean sand
1 part compost (optional)

Find a container large enough to suit your needs and stir in the above ingredients until thoroughly mixed type of plant. The biggest mistake gardeners make with containers is shoveling garden soil into them. It compacts when used in containers. Compacted soil squeezes out oxygen, dries out easily, and is difficult to wet again thoroughly. All this results in unhealthy plants. Even though dirt from your yard is free, to use it alone in containers will cost you.

There are countless reliable growing mediums sold in garden centers, and they are a good investment. But, you can mix your own for less money than you can buy it.

You can incorporate garden soil in your mix to save some money. Use only a rich, loamy soil and sift out any clods, stones, sticks, or other foreign matter. Healthy transplants and established plants can tolerate raw soil in the mix. If you are starting seeds, however, pasteurize the soil you add to your mix: Garden soil teems with tiny life-forms, from visible bugs to invisible ones. This is a dirty, smelly job and a great argument for germination mixes without soil. To kill off all soilborne organisms properly, heat soil to over 140°F for about thirty minutes. You can do this with pans in an oven.

Customize mixes for the type of plants you are growing. For plants requiring free drainage, such as cacti or succulents, add an extra part of sand or perlite. For those with specific nutritional requirements, mix in fertilizer accordingly.

The container. As for the containers you should use, there are a few things to consider. Will you be raising food or ornamentals in them? Never grow food crops in containers that have previously contained something unknown or questionable. Plant roots transport many toxins; they could end up on your dinner table. Also, the container must have drainage holes at the bottom. A larger container requires more and larger holes. Poor drainage kills off more plants than anything else.
The material the container is made of can affect the plants. Metal containers get very hot in direct sun and transmit the heat to tender plant roots. Black plastic pots absorb more heat than light-colored ones. But many plants, such as poinsettias, must have their roots in a dark environment. Wood containers may harbor fungi. Stone or brick containers absorb heat, and release it slowly. Terra cotta or clay pots are decorative, but they absorb water away from plant roots. Peat pots also absorb water from roots.

Lovely, decorative containers abound in trendy garden centers, and they can set you back a few bucks if you must have them. But creativity and an eye for unusual items are free.

Salvage an old pair of cowboy boots, and fill them to overflowing with lobelia or ivy geraniums. An old wheelbarrow makes a purposeful planter, deep enough for carrots, large enough for broccoli, and decorative enough for a variety of flowers and trailing vines. Wooden crates, dented metal buckets, plastic-lined wicker baskets, hollowed-out logs, leaky watering cans, antique milk cans, discarded lunch boxes, junked, claw-footed bathtubs, unseaworthy rowboats or canoes, and countless other finds make fun, functional, frugal planters. See what you can find.

Plants need air too, not just soil

A sometimes overlooked necessity for plant life is air (and not just carbon dioxide). Without air, plants struggle and perish. Yes, the free oxygen in the air is part of the photosynthesis recipe, produced by the plants themselves, but another practicality is even more visible here. Air movement around your plants prevents disease, especially fungal diseases that gain a foothold when the air is too “close” and humid and when wet leaves can’t dry or don’t dry quickly.
Underground, oxygen between the particles of soil is important. Plant roots, or more accurately, their little root hairs, are busy. They take in that oxygen, absorb water, and then release carbon dioxide. If this process is thwarted, as in waterlogged soil, the roots can’t function properly, they begin to rot, and the plant surely suffers.
I’m not suggesting you set up a fan out there in your garden, but here’s what you can do to make sure your plants are getting plenty of air:

• Don’t let soil get compacted. If it’s quite wet, don’t walk on it or dig in it. Loose soil is airy soil.
• The addition of organic matter, especially in dense clay soil — something I keep harping on, I know, but it’s so important — helps keep it aerated.
• Never kill an earthworm. Earthworms help break up and aerate your soil. Rejoice in their presence! Welcome them!
• Make sure your garden is well-drained (see the preceding section on drainage).
• Don’t crowd your plants together in the garden bed if they’re susceptible to mildew or black spot. Give everyone a little elbow room!

How to deal with garden drainage problems?

You know you have a drainage problem in your garden when heavy or even moderate rain leaves puddles that take forever to drain. Or you may find out, to your dismay, that under a few inches of okay soil in your yard is a stubborn layer of hardpan (most people discover this water-resistant barrier —often packed clay — when they dig a deeper-than-usual hole, say, for planting a big shrub or a tree).
Really damp areas (especially in humid periods or in shady spots) are slow to evaporate water, whether from rain or from your sprinkler. Then plant diseases can get begin, particularly on foliage. The answer here is to try to improve the air circulation: Prune overhanging growth and give individual plants more elbow room. And when you’re in charge of watering, supply it to the roots instead of allowing it to splash the entire plant. Obviously, bad drainage isn’t good for any garden plant, not just trees and shrubs. If you’re smart or lucky, you can deal with the problem before you plant or redo an area. Here are some options, from the simple to the high-tech:

• Try improving the soil. Dig in lots of organic matter. Soil with a high organic-matter content allows excess moisture to drain through while absorbing needed water. Sounds paradoxical, but it’s true. (For info on improving soil with compost, check out the earlier section titled “Compost: More than Just a Fertilizer.”)
• Build and garden in raised beds. You control the soil within, and thus it drains well and your plants are happy. Problem averted.
• Create a rain garden or a bog garden, and plant only water-loving plants. Water-loving trees and plants include maples, willows, astilbe, ferns, filipendula, beebalm, mint, various sorts of irises, and canna.
• Route water flow away from the garden area. Just get out there with a trowel or shovel and create some diversion channels. Of course, you don’t want to send the problem to another important part of the yard or foist unwanted, excess water on your neighbor. Send it down the driveway and on into the street, or into the gutter. This water needs to head for the storm drains. (If this plan isn’t practical, dig a hole nearby, fill it with gravel, and route the channel there.) Fertilizer runoff can harm rivers and streams, so if you use this technique, be especially careful that you don’t use excessive fertilizer and that you apply it at recommended times so the plants use the nutrients rapidly. See the earlier section “Facing the Fertilizer Facts” for info on proper application.
• Make a gravel channel. Follow the advice about rerouting water flow, but dig the channel somewhat deeper and fill it with crushed gravel or pebbles. You can hide it from view for some or all of its length by scooping a little soil over it. It’ll still do its job of slowly but surely taking the water away.
• Use perforated plastic pipes, lightly or deeply buried, to divert the water to where you want it to go. Home supply stores sell pipes specifically for this purpose. These pipes usually come in various forms and sizes of plastic; clay tiling is also available, but it’s too heavy and expensive for most homeowners.
• If the problem is severe and you can’t seem to solve it, drainage tiles, a French drain, or a curtain drain are options. Installing one of these systems can be a very expensive and involved process. Hire someone experienced to advise you, explain the options, and install.

Deciding whether you need professional help

Valves, risers, timers, controllers, moisture sensors, and pipes, oh my! If all these parts and how they should go together makes your head spin, hire someone. Hire someone who’s done it hundreds of times; find such a contractor via your local garden center, in the yellow pages, or through a reference from a friend or neighbor. (Get a written estimate for the work, labor, and parts, and check references.)
However, if you’re an affirmed do-it-yourselfer, handy, and confident, by all means, install your watering system yourself. Check with your local utility companies — gas, water, and electric —
(if the system’s underground) before doing any digging to avoid costly and potentially dangerous accidents.

Cutting back on watering

Even if you don’t live in an area experiencing drought, you don’t want to waste water, no matter what you pay for it or how much you have to use. Remember that for most efficient delivery, water in early to mid-morning —after the dew has dried but before the heat of the day sets in and much of the water evaporates. And mulch, mulch, mulch individual plants and entire beds to hold in the water right by the roots, where plants most need and appreciate it.

Wherever possible, build up a basin of mounded-up dirt or mulch around the edge of the rootball of each plant at planting time. Water goes right in the basin and soaks directly down into the root system instead of running off onto the lawn or driveway or elsewhere where it isn’t needed. The method of delivery can also save water: In-ground irrigation systems are wonderfully efficient, as I mention earlier in the chapter, and soaker hoses are also good. Drip systems shouldn’t produce any appreciable runoff on slopes. And although some sprinklers are good, others are very wasteful. Check out mail-order catalogs that specialize in types of sprinklers. They’re filled with good information on how to choose the right ones. Depending on what kind of soil you have and how well it absorbs, you may find it worthwhile to run the water slowly rather than fast, and perhaps ten minutes on, ten minutes off — either or both of these techniques often drenches an area quite efficiently with little waste.

Rain gauges are useful for measuring water when you apply it with overhead sprinklers. For drip systems, run them for an hour or two and then dig down into the soil around the plant to see how far down and wide the moisture has penetrated. Run the system longer if it hasn’t yet penetrated deep enough to reach the root zone. After you do this exercise a few times, you should know how long to run the system each time you water. Another way to cut back on the amount of watering you need to do is to use drought-tolerant plants in your garden. Gardeners in the Southwestern portion of the United States are particularly good at this type of gardening, largely through necessity. Drought-tolerant plants include cacti, succulents, ceanothus, rock rose, native dryland plants and their cultivars (such as penstemon and gaura), and deep-rooted perennials like prairie natives and their cultivars (such as baptisia, liatris, black-eyed Susans, and purple coneflowers).

Determining which watering system to use

The amount of water your garden needs depends on what kind of soil you’re using, what your climate is like, and what kinds of plants you have. Shallow rooted plants, for example, need more water than deep-rooted ones for the simple reason that they’re closer to the soil surface, which dries out more quickly in the heat of the sun. Deep roots can reach the more consistently damp lower soil layers.
For many gardeners, getting enough water to their gardens is the biggest gardening challenge. If you’re crunched for time or have a large area to water, installing in-ground sprinklers and irrigation systems may be a good idea. Employing the use of a regular watering system, such as drip irrigation or an in-ground system, is the best approach to ensuring a consistent moisture cycle to grow happy, healthy plants. However, in-ground watering systems tend to be expensive and should be installed by professionals. If you’re looking for suppliers of irrigation systems, the companies in the Appendix may be a good starting point.
Of course, you can always water your garden yourself, by hand, and really that’s a great way to do it, because you can personally inspect each plant. Whether you water by hand or use a system, here are some things you may want to keep in mind:

• Watering your garden early in the morning, before the sun is fully overhead, is usually best. Watering at night can make plants susceptible to diseases that cause them to rot.
• Some plants in your garden, such as melons, may require more water than others, in which case watering by hand is probably best. _ If you don’t have an outdoor spigot close to your garden for convenient hose hookup and watering, a rain barrel may be a good substitute for keeping water close to your garden. Various mail-order suppliers sell rain barrels.
• Make sure you get a barrel that’s tall enough so pets can’t get in, or put on covers to reduce drowning risks to pets and children. To keep mosquitoes out, use products like Mosquito Dunks, which are donuts of a type of bacteria that’s harmless to humans but deadly to mosquito larvae.
• Usually, watering the soil rather than the leaves is best because the roots are what absorb water, and they’re in the soil. Also, wetting the leaves can result in more disease problems. Still, on a very hot or windy day, watering the leaves can reduce wilt and lower leaf temperatures.
  
• Unless you have a very large garden, sprinkler heads that you attach to garden hoses are usually better suited for lawns than gardens. If you decide to use one, make sure the sprinkler covers the entire garden area evenly and doesn’t water things you don’t want watered, like your lawn furniture or windows.
• No matter what kind of garden you have or which watering system you use, infrequent deep soakings are better than frequent shallow waterings.